Abro

  Introduction It is a common misconception, perpetuated in educational institutions, that people during the medieval period believed the Earth to be flat. However, this notion is inaccurate and constitutes a 19th-century fabrication, lacking support from primary historical sources. Historian Jeffrey Burton Russell argues in his work "Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians" (1991) that the idea of a flat Earth is the most prevalent modern myth about the Middle Ages but is entirely untrue. The question then arises: What are the origins of this myth? The myth likely began with Washington Irving's 1828 semi-fictional biography of Christopher Columbus. In his account, Irving portrayed Columbus as attempting to prove the Earth's spherical shape and facing opposition from clergy who adhered to a flat-Earth belief, warning him of falling off the edge during his westward voyage. Irving's book quickly gained popularity, undergoing over 130 editions in...

  Colonial studies usually focus on socio-political and economic aspects of colonialism, but how colonialism affected the health and lives of colonial subjects remains understudied. The expansion of colonialism accelerated not only the movement of people and goods, but also pathogens, leading to exceptional epidemiological changes. In this article, I want to assess the relationship between colonialism and the spread of diseases in various colonies.   The Americas When Europeans landed in America, they did not land alone. They also brought pathogens, unknown to the native American bodies. Diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza not only severely affected local populations, but also caused demographic collapse. Some estimates place the decline of native populations at up to 90% after the arrival of Europeans. While the introduction of new pathogens may not have been the sole reason for the population collapse, other studies also mention inadequate nutrition, social confli...