The Flat Earth Myth: A 19th-Century Invention

 

Introduction

It is a common misconception, perpetuated in educational institutions, that people during the medieval period believed the Earth to be flat. However, this notion is inaccurate and constitutes a 19th-century fabrication, lacking support from primary historical sources. Historian Jeffrey Burton Russell argues in his work "Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians" (1991) that the idea of a flat Earth is the most prevalent modern myth about the Middle Ages but is entirely untrue. The question then arises: What are the origins of this myth?

The myth likely began with Washington Irving's 1828 semi-fictional biography of Christopher Columbus. In his account, Irving portrayed Columbus as attempting to prove the Earth's spherical shape and facing opposition from clergy who adhered to a flat-Earth belief, warning him of falling off the edge during his westward voyage. Irving's book quickly gained popularity, undergoing over 130 editions in the subsequent seventy years. Daniel Boorstin, in "The Discoverers" (1983), noted that "Irving’s account was so vivid that it became accepted as fact, shaping generations of textbook accounts". Consequently, a fictional narrative became perceived as historical reality.

Further popularisation of the flat-Earth myth came from Andrew Dickson White and John William Draper, prominent figures associated with the conflict thesis between science and religion. They posited that science and religion have consistently been in conflict, with religion consistently attempting to suppress scientific progress. To support this view, they presented figures such as Lactantius (c. 245-325 CE) and Cosmas Indicopleustes (c. 540 CE) as representative flat-Earth believers. However, contemporary scholarship indicates that these individuals represented a small minority and did not accurately reflect medieval thought. Lactantius's views were considered heretical posthumously, and Cosmas faced significant criticism during his lifetime. Both were largely disregarded for centuries, as the concept of a spherical Earth remained established among philosophers and the clergy. David Lindberg, in "The Beginnings of Western Science," states that "The overwhelming consensus among educated Europeans was that the Earth was spherical".

It is important to acknowledge that ancient civilisations like the Babylonians, Egyptians, and pre-Socratic Greeks did indeed hold beliefs in a flat Earth. However, following Pythagoras (6th century BCE), the Earth's spherical shape was not only established through various experiments but also remained the prevailing understanding up to the 18th century.

Greek Period

During the Greek period, Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE), whose ideas were disseminated through his followers as he left no written works himself, is suggested to have proposed the Earth's spherical form. While Plato's concept of a spherical Earth had a more philosophical and metaphysical basis, Aristotle provided rational arguments for its globular shape. In Book II of "On the Heavens," Aristotle presented three main arguments: the observation that all bodies are drawn towards the centre, forming a sphere; the consistently round shape of the Earth's shadow during lunar eclipses; and the changing visibility of stars as one travels north or south.

Eratosthenes (c. 276-194 BC) made perhaps the most significant early contribution to understanding the Earth's shape and size. He observed the difference in shadow angles cast by the sun at noon during the summer solstice in Syene and Alexandria. Through geometric calculations, he not only concluded that the Earth was spherical but also estimated its circumference to be approximately 39,375 kilometres, remarkably close to the modern measurement of 40,075 kilometres. Historian JB Bury noted that "Eratosthenes’s calculation was a triumph of applied mathematics, widely known in antiquity".

Hellenistic and Roman Period

In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Ptolemy (c. 100-170 CE) synthesised earlier Greek astronomical knowledge in his influential works "Almagest" and "Geographia". Although his model of the cosmos was geocentric, he operated under the assumption of a spherical Earth. Earlier confirmation of the Earth's curvature also came from the observations of sailors. Strabo (c. 64 BCE- 24 CE), writing in "Geography," noted that "The evidence from sailors who see different stars at different latitudes, and from ships disappearing hull-first over the horizon, all supports the spherical Earth hypothesis". Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE), in his "Natural History," deduced the Earth's roundness from the circular shadow observed on the moon during lunar eclipses.

Medieval era

Moving into the medieval era, the concept of a round Earth was not only preserved by scholars but also integrated into Christian, Islamic, and Jewish intellectual traditions. Saint Augustine (354–430 CE) did not dispute the Earth's sphericity nor perceive it as conflicting with Christian theology. Bede the Venerable (672–735 CE), an Anglo-Saxon monk, held a similar view, considering it consistent with Christian teachings. His work "De Temporum Ratione" (c. 723 CE), which survives in 150 manuscripts, was widely used in religious education.

From the 8th to the 13th centuries, Muslim scholars actively translated and built upon Greek scientific works, further developing their own methods to prove the Earth's globular shape. The House of Wisdom, established under Caliph Al-M’amun (r. 813–833 CE), served as a major centre for learning and the preservation of Greek texts. Al-Farghani, a 9th-century Muslim scholar, stated in his "Kitāb fī al-Ḥarakāt al-Samāwiyya wa Jawāmiʿ ʿIlm al-Nujūm" (Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions) that "The Earth is in the middle of the heavens, spherical in form, and stationary". His work was later translated into Latin in the 12th century and influenced Roger Bacon.

Al-Biruni (973–1048) developed a technique for measuring the Earth's radius and also discussed gravity as a force pulling objects towards the Earth's centre. In his "Al-Qānūn al-Masʿūdī," he wrote, "People believe that the Earth is at rest in the middle of the heavens and that it is spherical... This is established by both observation and reasoning". Ibn Hazm (994–1064), an Andalusian religious scholar, actively defended the Earth's roundness and criticised those who rejected scientific findings. Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126–1198) not only supported the spherical Earth model but also endeavoured to reconcile science and religion through rational arguments. His work was also translated into Latin in the 13th century and influenced Thomas Aquinas. Nasir al-Din Al-Tusi (1201–1274 CE), a Persian astronomer and director of the Maragha Observatory, utilised spherical trigonometry to explain planetary motion, thereby endorsing the Earth's globular shape. While many Christian and Muslim scholars believed in a stationary Earth and geocentric models, they did not dispute its spherical form. Seyyed Hossein Nasr notes that "Muslim astronomers uniformly accepted a spherical Earth, integrating Greek science with Islamic theology".

When Greek scientific works became accessible in 13th-century Europe through Muslim scholars, the belief in a spherical Earth became fundamental to university curricula. An influential text of this period, Johannes de Sacrobosco's "De Sphaera Mundi" (c. 1230), which summarised existing knowledge and contemporary observations, asserted strongly that "That the Earth is round is shown thus: that it is in the shadow that it casts in eclipses, for it makes a circular shadow... and because the star Polaris rises higher in the sky as one moves northward". Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) adopted Aristotelian philosophy, integrated it with Christian theology, and explained natural phenomena, including the Earth's round shape, within a theological framework.

It's important to consider the beliefs of medieval Indian scholars, often overlooked in discussions of the flat-Earth myth. One influential Indian writer, Surya Siddhanta (c. 4th–6th century CE), using trigonometry, concluded, "The Earth is spherical, standing in space, surrounded by the sky on all sides". He also provided an estimate of the Earth's diameter remarkably close to the modern figure. Aryabhata (476–550 CE), another Indian mathematician, believed in the Earth's roundness and reflected on its axial rotation, using the analogy of a person in a moving boat observing stationary objects on the bank moving backward to explain the apparent westward motion of stars. This example supports both the Earth's rotation and its sphericity. Bhaskara II, writing in the 12th century, noted that "the Earth’s curvature causes ships to disappear bottom-first at sea". His models were further refined by Madhava (c. 1340–1425 CE), who calculated the Earth’s spherical parameters. Al-Biruni also documented and confirmed Indian views on the Earth's shape in his "Tahqīq mā li-l-Hind," noting that "the Hindus have theories concerning the Earth being round, and revolving around its axis, though these views are not shared by all their philosophers".

After examining the views of various medieval European scholars, Jeffrey Russell concluded that "In the first fifteen centuries of the Christian era, five writers seem to have denied the globe, and a few others were ambiguous and uninterested in the question. But nearly unanimous scholarly opinion pronounced the earth spherical, and by the fifteenth century all doubt had disappeared". This assertion, while specifically regarding European scholars, can also be extended to Muslim and Indian scholars of the same period.

The 19^th Century

So, if the majority of educated individuals in the medieval era accepted a spherical Earth, how did the flat-Earth myth originate in the 19th century? This should be understood within the context of the Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment. Protestant and secular writers sought to portray the Catholic Church as an adversary of reason and rationality. To convince people they were living in a "post-enlightenment age," these writers needed to depict the medieval era as a "dark age". To promote the idea that they were employing rational and scientific methods, storytellers had to present medieval people as superstitious and ignorant, believing anything. To establish the "age of reason," they needed to portray the preceding age as the "age of faith," characterized by darkness and ignorance. As historian JB Russell noted, "The reason for promoting the flat Earth error in the nineteenth century was to support the thesis that Europe had been mired in darkness until rescued by science".

In his book "A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom" (1896), Andrew Dickson White depicted the Church as a primary enemy of science, asserting that "The belief that the Earth is a sphere was declared heretical... and science was subjected to theological tyranny". However, historian Ronald Numbers points out that "White’s depiction of the medieval church as a flat-Earth enforcer is not just exaggerated—it is invented". Furthermore, 19th-century American nationalism celebrated Columbus as a hero, embodying exploration and individualism, who consciously overcame medieval ignorance by venturing into the unknown. His biographies, with around 300 published in the 19th century alone, frequently repeated Irving's flat-Earth myth, solidifying it as a popular cultural narrative.

The Flat-Earth Movement

While educated medieval individuals largely believed in a spherical Earth, the 19th century did witness the emergence of an actual flat-Earth movement, spearheaded by British writer Samuel Rowbotham. In his 1865 publication, "Zetetic Astronomy: Earth Not a Globe," he presented the flat-Earth idea not only as a scientifically valid concept but also as a belief held by people in earlier times, aligned with the Bible. His followers actively published literature to support the flat-Earth model, challenging scientists to disprove it. Mainstream scientists generally ignored these claims. Flat-earthers often sought legal trials to resolve the issue, but by this time, the spherical nature of the Earth was so well-established that even judges and juries ruled against them, with some even facing imprisonment.

Despite mounting evidence to the contrary, the flat-Earth myth was further propagated by Lady Blount, who founded the Universal Zetetic Society (UZS) in 1893. The UZS aimed to promote the myth based on literal interpretations of Christian texts. The UZS shared similarities with another creationist organisation, the Victoria Institute, founded in 1865 by flat-earther James Reddie, as both sought to return to "original truths" as stated in holy scriptures. The rise of the flat-earth movement and the establishment of such organisations can be viewed as a reaction against secular science, particularly following the Darwinian revolution, which many believed contradicted religious doctrines.

Persistence of the Myth

The flat-Earth myth persists into the 21st century and continues to be taught in textbooks and disseminated through popular magazines and science books. Despite being factually incorrect, the myth endures through the works of some popular writers. Stephen Jay Gould, in "Dinosaur in a Haystack" (1995), refuted such claims, stating, "There never was a period of ‘flat Earth darkness’ among scholars. Greek knowledge of sphericity never faded, and all major medieval scholars accepted the Earth’s roundness as an established fact of cosmology".

Finally, a word of caution

It is important to exercise caution when revising historical narratives. While it is accurate to challenge the notion of widespread belief in a flat Earth during the medieval era and highlight it as a 19th-century invention, this doesn't fully illuminate lay beliefs. Due to extremely low literacy rates and the lack of written records from most ordinary people, we simply lack definitive knowledge of their beliefs regarding the Earth's shape. Although influential theologians supported the idea of a spherical Earth, their sermons likely focused more on moral and ethical themes than astronomical concepts.

Furthermore, historians like David Lindberg caution against creating an overly positive view of the medieval period by solely focusing on the acceptance of a globular Earth. We know that the prevailing medieval cosmic model was geocentric, and many scholars believed in a stationary Earth. Nevertheless, recent scholarship challenges the "dark age" stereotype, suggesting that the medieval period was not as intellectually stagnant as often portrayed, thus making the term "enlightenment" somewhat of a misnomer.

The medieval period, both in Europe and Asia, was dynamic and saw various debates, experiments, and new philosophical approaches that sought to integrate science and religion. While logic was often subordinate to theology, medieval religious scholars still valued logic for interpreting holy texts and papal teachings. In the 12th century, Bishop John of Salisbury, who emphasized the importance of logic in Christian education, is quoted by Edward Grant in "God & Reason in the Middle Ages" as saying, "Since logic has such tremendous power, anyone who charges that it is foolish to study this [art], thereby shows himself to be a fool of fools". However, John also cautioned against applying logic to divine mysteries.

(Note: This article is not about the current flat-earth movement, but the 19^th-century idea that people in the Medieval era believed in a flat earth.)

Colonialism and the Spread of Diseases: A Historical and Epidemiological Perspective

 

Colonial studies usually focus on socio-political and economic aspects of colonialism, but how colonialism affected the health and lives of colonial subjects remains understudied. The expansion of colonialism accelerated not only the movement of people and goods, but also pathogens, leading to exceptional epidemiological changes. In this article, I want to assess the relationship between colonialism and the spread of diseases in various colonies.

 

The Americas

When Europeans landed in America, they did not land alone. They also brought pathogens, unknown to the native American bodies. Diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza not only severely affected local populations, but also caused demographic collapse. Some estimates place the decline of native populations at up to 90% after the arrival of Europeans. While the introduction of new pathogens may not have been the sole reason for the population collapse, other studies also mention inadequate nutrition, social conflicts, population displacement, and psychological stress connected with the arrival of foreigners. Some indigenous groups developed traditional healing methods and invented indigenous herbal medicines, but, unfortunately, these failed to protect them against the new pathogens.

 

Africa

In Africa, colonialism changed the disease pattern and landscape very significantly. Colonialists caused forced migration, introduced new agricultural practices, coerced people to stay in specific urban centers, and changed environments in ways that offered easy channels for the spread of diseases. Among various diseases was the Sleeping sickness, caused by deforestation and population displacement, increasing human contact with tsetse flies. According to Maryinez Lyons, due to Belgian colonial policies in the Congo, over half a million cases of the epidemic were recorded in the early 20th century.

 

Similarly, large Malaria outbreaks followed the construction of colonial infrastructure, such as the Congo-Ocean Railway. In "Death by Migration," Philip Curtin shows that even European colonizers themselves suffered high mortality rates in West Africa, with early settlements experiencing death rates exceeding 50% in their first year. While colonizers eventually developed preventive measures, such as quinine prophylaxis, they prioritized European lives over indigenous populations, reinforcing racial hierarchies in medical care.

Asia

Colonial India suffered a similar fate. Railways and canal projects by the British facilitated the spread of water-borne and parasitic infections. Recent studies associate six major cholera outbreaks from 1817 to 1920 in India with global trade, the accelerated rate of colonial expansion, inadequate urban planning, and poor housing and sanitation. The British introduced some health measures, but according to David Arnold, these efforts were made mainly to protect their own officials, not the subject populations.

 

The British authorities also launched some immunization campaigns against diseases like smallpox, but these proved inadequate and ineffective. Sanjoy Bhattacharya in "Expunging Variola" notes that these efforts were often coercive and insensitive, that led to widespread resistance among the masses, who, by refusing to be thus vaccinated, remained more vulnerable to such diseases. Rejecting traditional healing systems of Ayurveda and Unani medicine, which might have been effective in some cases, the British introduced their own medicine that caused more suspicion and mistrust among the local population.

 

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia, Aboriginal populations were not devastated in a single wave but were exposed to foreign pathogens and violence repeatedly over a long time. According to "Our Original Aggression," by Noel Butlin, the Aboriginal population witnessed a decline from 750,000 in 1788 to 31,000 in 1911 by disease, violence, and displacement. Similarly, Judy Campbell argues in "Invisible Invaders" that smallpox wiped out entire communities within months of European arrival.

 

The situation of the Māori in New Zealand was, however, slightly different from the Australian Aborigines. While their population declined by almost 50%, the impact of epidemics was less severe. Unlike their neighboring Aboriginal Australians, the Māori maintained some degree of political and social cohesion, which helped reduce some of the severest health impacts.

Intentional Disease Spread

In most cases, transmission of diseases during the colonial era was unintentional, but there is some evidence of intentional attempts to use the disease as a biological weapon. During Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763), some British officers are said to have distributed smallpox-infected blankets among the native Americans to weaken their resistance.

 

But, even if such intentional uses of diseases are debated, colonialism did negatively impact the subject populations by neglecting indigenous health care, using structural violence, and causing population displacement.

 

Colonial Public Health

Public health measures initiated by the colonial authorities were often the result of the desire to control local populations rather than improve their health. For example, in India, Europeans were often exempted from forced quarantines during the plague pandemic, whereas the Indians had no choice. Vaccine interventions were often accompanied by coercion and violence. Though these health measures may not be considered entirely exploitative, the recent scholarship suggests that these efforts were mainly influenced by racial prejudices and pragmatic concerns to maintain and strengthen their power.

Epidemics and Anti-Colonial Resistance

Diseases did not just devastate communities. Sometimes they also fueled resistance against colonial masters. While poverty, economic hardship, forced labor, and displacement pushed the subject populations to launch anti-colonial movements, the mismanagement of epidemics further alienated local populations accelerating demands for self-rule.

 

Legacies of Colonial Disease Transmission

Though colonialism has become the story of the past, the differential and negative impact of its policies persists. Since the colonial authorities did not invest enough in the public health infrastructure, most former colonies have not yet been able to improve their health systems even today. According to the WHO, Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for more than 90% of malaria and HIV/AIDs cases in 2020.

Conclusion

Whether intentional or not, the spread of diseases during colonialism altered the global disease landscape. While epidemics weakened local populations, and in some cases, wiped out entire villages, they also helped launch movements against the authorities. Colonial rule introduced modern medicine, but also reinforced racial prejudices and social hierarchies. Studying the past, we may work toward a more equitable health system.